Doctorat de l’Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales

specialite : Etudes urbaines

Jury compose de

M. Michael DARIN, Professeur a l’ecole d’architecture de Nantes

Mme Cynthia GHORRA-GOBIN, Professeur a l’I.E.P. de Paris

M. Bruno Queysanne, Professeur a l’ecole d’architecture de Grenoble

Marcel Roncayolo, Directeur d’etudes a l’E.H.E.S.S. (Directeur de these)

These soutenue le 7 fevrier 1997

De fait, la première grille orthogonale expérimentée par le territoire du Nouveau Monde s’est imposée à celui-ci dès les premiers jours de son "existence", dès sa découverte. L’Amérique a effectivement pris forme sur le vaste quadrillage de la planisphère, s’appuyant, se fixant, sur ces coordonnées définitivement fixées. La trame orthogonale servant à représenter la surface terrestre devient alors l’outil indispensable à la définition des abscisses et ordonnées du Nouveau Monde. Dès lors, la grille n’est plus seulement un outil de représentation, mais aussi un outil de conception. Les premières frontières, les premières limites, seront définies à l’aide de cette grille, parallèles et méridiens proposant des assises sûres, irrémédiablement fixées.

Par la suite, lors de la colonisation de la "deuxième génération", cette idée d’un quadrillage régulier recouvrant l’ensemble du territoire revendiqué sera conservée, afin de mieux gérer l’occupation de cette immense superficie - qui, de plus est, ne cessait de s’accroître. En effet, le jeune gouvernement de la nouvelle nation naissante choisira d’apposer une géométrie cartésienne encore plus précise sur l’ensemble du domaine public appartenant désormais aux Etats-Unis; celle-ci se devra de gérer la totalité des terres acquises et non encore attribuées. La Land Ordinance de 1785 (ou Jefferson’s Ordinance) initiera les termes de cette nouvelle pratique: elle instituera les premières règles selon lesquelles ce quadrillage devait être tracé. Etats, comtés, townships, champs, lots, routes, rues, clôtures se conformeront à ces tracés abstraits irrémédia-blement imposés au paysage nord-américain.

En outre, la ville elle même répondra le plus souvent à cette logique de "l’angle droit", quelle que soit son origine, ou sa situation, dans le temps comme dans l’espace. Dès l’origine, le quadrillage s’était effectivement révélé être un excellent outil de colonisation, privilégié aussi bien par les Espagnols que les Français ou les Anglais. (Les Espagnols élaboreront même les premières lois d’urbanisme jamais appliquées sur le continent américain: les célèbres Lois des Indes.) Et des lors, le déplacement régulier des frontières, lors de la colonisation de la "deuxième génération", ne fera que confirmer l’efficacité d’une telle pratique géométrique; et alors que les nouvelles villes des nouvelles frontières seront initialement fondées en prenant pour modèle les premières villes créées dans les anciennes colonies côtières, les suivantes se démarqueront peu à peu de ces modèles initiaux, afin de s’adapter aux nouvelles conditions, nécessités, et situations affrontées. Néanmoins, le systeme orthogonal, quadrille, sera évidemment conservé, celui-ci offrant à l’homme un outil de conception spatiale on ne peut plus performant; car non seulement il etait dote de cette tres grande capacite d’adaptation lui permettant de repondre aux multiples exigences exprimées par les fondateurs de ces villes nouvelles, mais en outre, il permettait d’instaurer ce premier ordre indispensable, d’instituer ces marques essentielles, preuves de la victoire de l’homme sur la nature américaine, sauvage et hostile (signifiant ainsi le territoire conquis sur celui resté sauvage). Villes-frontières, villes-ferroviaires, villes-minières, Compagny Towns, villes "utopiques",… toutes, ou presque, adopteront un tracé orthogonal, pour des raisons - logiques, ou idéologies - parfois très diverses.

Car ce que nous dénommons "quadrillage orthogonal" peut effectivement offrir une très grande variété structurelle, celle-ci évoluant en fonction de la pensée qui guidera sa réalisation; de fait, une grille peut être conçue comme une résille régulière de rues parallèles et perpendiculaires, ou comme un ensemble de "blocs" ou modules juxtaposés, voire comme la résultante d’une subdivision ‘’cellulaire". D’autre part, d’autres facteurs seront egalement amenes a jouer un rôle essentiel, tels que les caracteristiques geographiques naturelles, la topographie du site.

Cependant, cette grille qui semblait apporter toutes les solutions aux nombreux problèmes rencontrés sera bientôt combattue, rejetée; et ce rejet aura pour origine des considérations d’ordre prioritairement esthétique: une trame orthogonale ne semblant pas être apte à fournir une image urbaine convenable, conventionnelle. Car outre le fait que la ville en elle-même - the city - sera considérée par une majeure partie de la population américaine comme un phénomène monstrueux, à combattre, la géométrie qui caractérise cet espace sera bien évidemment mise en accusation pour avoir créé ces lieux inhumains, artificiels, "anti-naturels". D’ailleurs, cette opposition nature vs ville ce doublera bientôt d’une opposition courbe vs droite, ce qui conduira à une forme d’insurrection contre la "tyrannie" de la grille: la grille accusée d’avoir imposé une ville sans fin, une ville sans centre, une ville trop chaotique dans laquelle le vide prend trop de place. Bien entendu, toutes ces critiques sont formulées en s’appuyant sur des modèles de référence parfaitement connus: ceux offerts par les villes européennes, closes, compactes, aux perspectives arrêtées.

Divers mouvements tenteront de corriger ces défauts "congénitaux", en créant des systèmes de parcs urbains, en ouvrant de larges perspectives biaises au travers du quadrillage, en édifiant des monuments-cibles - comme tentera de le faire, par exemple, le City Beautiful Movement initié lors de l’exposition universelle de Chicago en 1893. Cependant, ces mesures, ou aménagements, ces "beautifications" ne parviendront pas à gérer l’expansion sans cesse croissante de la ville et de ses suburbs, ces dernières offrant finalement, à la population urbaine américaine, le moyen de réaliser leur "idéal": celui de la ville à la campagne. Et de fait, la vision jeffersonnienne prédominera encore longtemps (elle predomine encore dans la pensée contemporaine) comme semble l’attester, notamment, le projet très élaboré de Broadacre City imaginé par F. Lloyd Wright.

En fait, la grille aura subi, et continue encore de subir, les changements les plus radicaux - comme ceux proposés par Hilberseimer, dans les années 1940/1950, pour la ville de Chicago; sa structure, à la fois stricte et flexible, lui permet effectivement de s’adapter à toutes les évolutions caractérisant la ville - town ou city. De fait, la grille orthogonale américaine n’offre pas une forme précise mais un cadre primaire, une charpente rudimentaire prête à recevoir tous les aménagements envisagés; elle initie un espace urbain - de même que rural - virtuel, qu’il s’agit ensuite de "concrétiser" de la meilleure façon qu’il soit, en fonction des besoins, des attentes de ses habitants.

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